The adjective “insurgent” refers to one who rises in revolt against a recognized authority. Lincoln avoids naming the “insurgent agents” in an effort to present the causes for the war as inevitable and to avoid casting blame. However, in 1860, during and after Lincoln’s election, legislators from South Carolina and other Southern states had sought secession for themselves. On December 20th, 1860, South Carolina called a state convention to consider secession, and the states gathered there unanimously voted in favor. Their actions represent those of the insurgent agents that Lincoln describes as having sought to dissolve the Union.

Lincoln makes another calculated rhetorical appeal in this line. He does not specifically state that anyone on either side was in favor of war and bloodshed. His use of “all” signals inclusion, which appeals to those seeking to reunify the country and avoids casting blame.

This trio of phrases concisely summarizes Lincoln’s attitude in the entire address. Lincoln’s perspective toward the Civil War as it draws to a close is one of balance and compassion. His aim is not to castigate the Confederacy, only to end the conflict and reconcile the nation. The phrase “with firmness in the right” conveys Lincoln’s conviction in the correctness of the Union cause, specifically the moral necessity of eradicating slavery from the United States. This method of summarizing the main points of a speech in its conclusion is an effective rhetorical strategy; it reminds the audience of what is most important and leaves a lasting impression.

Lincoln’s election to the presidency has been cited as a key reason for the start of the Civil War. A few weeks after his election, South Carolina had a state convention in which several Southern states declared independence as a confederacy, drafted a constitution, and elected a president. Several other Southern states followed in the ensuing months, and the Civil War officially began in April, 1861, when the rebel army attacked the US Army base at Fort Sumter in South Carolina.

In this passage, Lincoln reiterates the idea that the Civil War represents a punishment and payment for the sin of slavery. Lincoln expresses this idea using the image of blood; the every drop of blood exacted from slaves by their masters must be matched by blood spilled on the battlefields of the war. This image is purely figurative, but it is elegant and concrete enough to convey Lincoln’s point forcefully.

Lincoln’s opening paragraph is cautiously optimistic and reflects the overall purpose of his speech. He uses neutral language, he draws attention to the Union army’s successes, and he professes “high hope for the future.” However, note that Lincoln avoids mention of any “prediction” of what will come. This allows him to focus his policies on reunification as the defining aspect of his second term of office, allowing him to craft this inaugural address appropriately.

Lincoln makes a neutral claim to describe the military successes of the Union army under General Ulysses S. Grant during his first term. Rather than using words like “victory,” “success,” and “triumph,” Lincoln’s choice of “progress” reflects his desire to acknowledge the conclusion of the war, the likelihood of Union victory, and focus on reunification.

Lincoln’s choice of diction here is significant; he calls it a “great contest” rather than a “civil war.” A potential reason for this choice is the success that the Union armies had found during Lincoln’s first term. Many saw the end of the war in sight, and many were looking to reintegrate the South into the Union. By saying “great contest” rather than “war,” Lincoln presents the rebel states as contestants rather than enemy combatants, potentially making an appeal to those sympathetic to the Confederates. Since the National Unity Party supported his re-election campaign and he took on Andrew Johnson as his vice president, Lincoln’s use of neutral terms suggests that he’s also looking towards reunification.

Article II of the United States Constitution states that a president shall hold office “during the Term of four Years.” It wasn’t until the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment in 1951 that presidents became limited to only two-consecutive terms.

Lincoln won the presidential election of 1860 in a race that greatly reflected the political and ideological divisions in the country at the time, foregrounding the American Civil War which began just months into Lincoln’s first term. Lincoln refers to the theme of his first inaugural address and how his second shall differ.

On a literal level, a “scourge” is a whip. More connotatively, it refers to any cause of suffering. Lincoln’s diction here reveals an intriguing and apt metaphor. Just as slaves were traditionally whipped as a punishment for misbehavior, the United States was whipped by the “mighty scourge of war” for the misdeed of allowing slavery to exist.

In this paragraph, Lincoln quotes directly from the Gospel of Matthew 18:7, his second quotation from the biblical book of Matthew in this speech. The quotation expresses the inevitability of suffering and tragedy, but it suggests that the person through whom the suffering arrives will be subject to judgment. Lincoln then frames slavery as an example of an offense that needs to be removed. Lincoln suggests that because the American people allowed slavery to occur, they are being punished in the form of civil war. It is not clear whether Lincoln believes this to be true in a literal sense or whether the idea of divine punishment represents a rhetorical framework.

Lincoln shares his balanced vision of the war and displays his understanding of both sides of the conflict. He recognizes that both the Union and Confederacy have experienced compromise and disappointment. The Confederacy’s desire for independence and the Union’s desire for swift reconciliation went unfulfilled. As Lincoln puts it, “the prayers of both could not be answered.” By envisioning the war as a compromise on all sides, Lincoln appeals to his audience’s empathy and calls for all Americans to aid in the reunification of the country.

Lincoln quotes the New Testament of the Bible, specifically a passage from the Gospel of Matthew: “let us not judge, that we not be judged.” The passage, whose lesson is to avoid self-righteousness and hypocrisy, informs Lincoln’s handling of the Confederacy in the waning days of the war. Despite his firm anti-slavery stance, Lincoln expresses no desire to excoriate the Confederates. Rather, he continues to draw on shared Christian values and thereby emphasize common ground.

Despite the balanced, non-judgmental view Lincoln adopts in his discussion of the war, he takes a definite stance on the issue of slavery—a wrong he feels must be eliminated. Lincoln characterizes the Confederates as “wringing their bread from the sweat of other men’s faces.” Lincoln, however, does not chastise the defenders of slavery; rather, Lincoln reiterates the importance of the Union’s cause.

Lincoln presents an attitude of balance and compassion towards the war. Rather than denouncing or blaming the Confederacy, Lincoln humanizes them. As he puts it, those on both sides “read the same Bible, and pray to the same God.” It is notable that Lincoln quotes the Christian Bible throughout this speech. While Christian ideas were important to the founding fathers who created the Constitution, the First Amendment to the Constitution calls for a “separation of church and state,” meaning that the government cannot regulate the beliefs and religious practices of its citizens. Nonetheless, Christian values have always been widespread in the United States, including in Lincoln’s time. Thus, it is far from unexpected for an American politician to draw on Christian values and ideals in a political address. In Lincoln’s case, the evocation of these values is a means to an end. Lincoln’s ultimate desire is for unity and peace, a goal which he strives for by appealing to the emotions and values of his audience.

When he entered office as president, Lincoln took a moderate stance on slavery, openly seeking to stop the spread of slavery, not to bring an outright end to it. This is the stance he refers to in this passage. This stance had been partly shaped by the federal legislature on slavery passed in the 1850s, namely the Fugitive Slave Acts—which dictate that escaped slaves must be returned to their masters—and the Dred Scott Decision—which denied citizenship to all slaves and which legalized slavery in the federal territories, which encompassed all of the regions added to the United States beyond the original thirteen states.

There have been debates over the cause of the Civil War since the war itself was waged. The two most often cited causes are states’ rights—the desire among the Southern states to make and govern their own laws—and slavery. Lincoln points to slavery as the deciding cause, a view which has become the most widely accepted interpretation of the war. As Lincoln expressed it in an 1858 speech, “‘A house divided against itself cannot stand.’ I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free.”

Lincoln characterizes the slave population and their position in American politics during the war. Lincoln refers to the slaves as a “peculiar and powerful interest”: “powerful” because they represented over an eighth of the American population; “peculiar” because they did not align easily with any other group. While slaves as a whole were more sympathetic to the Union than the Confederacy, many did not readily view themselves as citizens of the Union. All told, slaves took a variety of perspectives: some took to the Union cause, joining the Union Army; others adopted a pragmatic stance, siding with the Union as long as it advanced their own goal of freedom; others still were wary of emancipation and the uncertainties of a free future.