The verb “to pique” means to excite, usually to anger or irritation in response to wounded pride. The younger sister is frustrated by the elder sister’s bragging, possibly out of jealousy for not having married a wealthy man. Her pride is wounded, and thus she portrays a peasant’s life as superior to that of a tradesman.
A “promenade” is a public place where people go for leisurely walks. A promenade can also refer to a ritual before a formal ball in which all of the guests march together. Here, the elder sister boasts that she is wealthy enough to attend the theater, take leisurely strolls in town, and enjoy other various forms of entertainment that would not have been an option for the younger sister and her poor family.
The noun “Commune” refers to a typically rural community of people who collectively own their land. Such communities were common among peasants in the Russian Empire during the 19th century. Communes were governing bodies as well as cooperatives, and an important function of a Commune involved dividing arable land among the peasants. Though Pahom and his family live on their own strip of land, he is dissatisfied and wishes to obtain more for himself.
The noun “steward” refers to a person employed in a large estate to perform tasks such as tax collection, supervising servants, or other household responsibilities. From the peasants’ perspective, the steward is a tyrannical figure perceived as “burdening” them with fines that may sometimes be justified, as in the case of Pahom’s livestock damaging the lady’s property. The peasants’ dislike of the lady’s steward, as well as of the landowning class in general, exemplify the stark divisions between the socioeconomic classes in their Commune.
The Volga is the longest river in Europe, stretching 2,293 miles from Central Russia to the Caspian Sea, and is considered to be the national river of Russia. Many people relied on the Volga in order to migrate from east to west. Eleven of Russia’s twenty largest cities—including Moscow, its capital—are located around its drainage basin.
The adjective “aggrieved” means to be troubled or distressed about something. The word can also refer to the following: a violation of or infringement upon one’s rights, or the expression of frustration or grief. L. and A. Maude’s translation emphasizes Pahom’s growing hypocrisy, given that he is the one who is actually infringing upon Simon’s rights by repeatedly accusing him of chopping down his lime trees without any proof.
The verb “to forbear” means to restrain or to hold oneself back from doing something, often with difficulty. Though Pahom once resented being fined by the landowner’s steward, he is now increasingly frustrated with the peasants’ frequent trespassing on his property. His past experience as a peasant has enabled him to maintain some degree of empathy, but their refusal to stop trespassing eventually erodes his patience.
Fallow land is cultivated farmland that lies dormant during a growing season. Leaving land dormant allows soil to replenish nutrients that can be depleted if crops are grown from season to season without a resting period. Further, tilling cultivated land can destroy weeds and encourage the soil to retain moisture. Pahom recognizes, therefore, that fallow land cannot be sown and therefore cannot be profited from until the next growing season.
The adjective “arable” means to be suitable for growing crops. Peasants in Russian Communes, such as the one Pahom’s family came from and the one they have now been accepted into, relied on arable land to grow crops that would pay for their taxes. With more arable and pasture land, Pahom is able to raise wealth beyond what is needed for taxes.
Kumiss, which is a fermented beverage made from either mare’s or donkey’s milk, is used as a symbol for life’s simple pleasures. Pahom automatically associates this with ignorance and laziness. Kumiss, which the Bashkirs offer to Pahom as a gesture of friendliness, is later contrasted with Pahom’s spade, which becomes a symbol of his all-consuming greed.
"The people lived on the steppes..."See in text(Part V)
The noun “steppe” means a flat, usually treeless, tract of land that is common in Russia and Central Asia. Steppes are often subjected to extreme differences in temperature from summer to winter and even from day to night. They are also typically covered with grass and, depending on climate, can support healthy crop growth. The Bashkirs, however, seem content to simply live on the land instead of cultivating it for profit, thus leading Pahom to conclude that they are “ignorant.”
Pahom’s spade, which is an instrument predominantly used for digging, becomes another important symbol by the end of the story. While kumiss represents life’s simple pleasures, the spade represents Pahom’s greed. Further, because Pahom’s spade is used to perform manual labor, its symbolism underscores the ties between labor and capitalism—an economic system that relies on private ownership, which Pahom has been chasing throughout the story, in order to operate effectively.
A “scribe” is a person who writes, often for the purpose of copying manuscripts or documenting official proceedings. Here, the Bashkirs employ a scribe to conduct their business in writing.
A “deed” is a signed document representing the legal transfer of property, such as land or a building, from one party to the other. Therefore, it is an integral component in the legal process of obtaining and enforcing an individual’s ownership of private property. Pahom worries that the Bashkirs may accept his payment for the land but reclaim it later on, so he wishes to legally protect his purchase with a deed.
The verb “to dispute” means to disagree with or to engage in an argument with others. The Bashkirs are arguing over whether or not to involve their chief in their negotiations with Pahom. Though the translation by L. and A. Maud does not make it clear why the Bashkirs are divided about whether to consult the Chief, it is possible that several of them are acting from a place of their own greed—that is, they dispute one another because some of them want to speed the process of Pahom’s purchase.
"prostrate on the ground,..."See in text(Part VII)
The adjective “prostrate” means to be lying flat on the ground, either in submission or because one has lost the will to carry on. The translators’ word choice suggests a double-meaning: Pahom lies prostrate in his dream both because he is dead and because he has submitted himself to the devil’s influence and allowed himself to be carried away by greed.
The noun “plough-land” refers to farmland that is cultivated specifically for the purpose of growing crops. Pahom is so susceptible to temptation by this point in the story that readers, who are aware that he is under the influence of the devil, is encouraged to question his overconfidence. He has become obsessed with making money so that rather than planning a reasonable approach to marking off land before sunset, he fantasizes about how he will monetize the tract he claims for himself.
The adjective “parched” means to be extremely thirsty, often due to heat. In his effort to return to the hillock by sunset, Pahom has discarded his clothes—taking on the exact appearance of his dead self from his nightmare—and even cast off his flask of water. The only item he has retained is his spade, the symbol of his greed, which he uses “as a support.” Now his body undergoes such significant stress that he fears he will “die of the strain.” Yet, he cannot stop because he imagines the Bashkirs mocking him.
The verb “to blunder” in this context means to make a mistake out of foolishness or idiocy. To blunder also suggests making errors because of carelessness. Here, Pahom admits for the first time that he has behaved stupidly and carelessly by trying to claim as much land as possible. Now, he risks missing his deadline and will lose all of the land he marked off. However, Pahom does not seem to recognize that his blunder is actually due to his general greed for land—rather, he interprets it as a failure of strategy in this particular situation. Thus, he continues on.
